تبیین عوامل مؤثر بر شکل‌گیری حس‌تعلق اجتماعی در مجموعه‌های مسکونی محصور، مورد مطالعاتی: مجموعه‌های مسکونی شهر همدان

نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 استادیار معماری، دانشکده معماری و شهرسازی، دانشگاه هنر اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران.

2 استاد معماری، دانشکده معماری، پردیس هنرهای زیبا، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران.

3 استاد معماری، دانشکده معماری، پردیس محیط ساخته شده، دانشگاه نیوساوت ولز، سیدنی، استرالیا.

4 دانشجوی دکتری معماری اسلامی، دانشکده معماری و شهرسازی، دانشگاه هنر اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران.

چکیده

از چند دهه پیش تاکنون، ظهور و گسترش مجموعه‌های مسکونی برنامه‌ریزی شده با محدوده‌های سخت و قابل کنترل، به نام مجموعه‌های مسکونی محصور و بحث درخصوص پیامدهای اجتماعی زندگی در آن‌ها، توجه پژوهشگران را به خود جلب کرده است. در ادبیات مسکن‌سازی، اختلاف‌های زیادی در خصوص ادراک حس‌تعلق اجتماعی، به‌عنوان شاخصی برای کیفیت زندگی اجتماعی ساکنان مجموعه‌های مسکونی محصور وجود دارد. مطالعات نشان می‌دهند که مجموعه‌های مسکونی محصور می‌توانند هم موجب افزایش و هم کاهش حس‌تعلق اجتماعی شوند. با توجه به کارکردهای مهم حس‌تعلق اجتماعی، این پژوهش سعی کرده است نگاه دقیق‌تری به عوامل مؤثر بر شکل‌گیری و ارتقاء آن در مجموعه‌های مسکونی محصور داشته باشد. در این تحقیق، با استفاده از روش پیمایش و بهره‌گیری از شیوه نمونه‌گیری خوشه‌ای و توزیع پرسش‌نامه، حس‌تعلق اجتماعی 360 نفر از ساکنان بالای بیست سال، سه مجموعه مسکونی محصور در شهر همدان تحلیل شده است. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد متغیرهای پیوند اجتماعی محلی، اعتماد و کنترل اجتماعی، احساس امنیت، مدت اقامت، استفاده از فضای عمومی و وجود کاربری‌های مختلط، رابطه معناداری با حس‌تعلق اجتماعی دارند. مطابق نتایج تحقیق، میزان حس‌تعلق اجتماعی در میان ساکنان مجموعه‌های مسکونی مطالعه شده، در حد بالایی نیست. نتیجه تحقیق، تأییدکننده آن دسته از دیدگاه‌های مخالف در ادبیات است، که بر روی هزینه‌های اجتماعی مجموعه‌های مسکونی محصور تأکید می‌کنند. بر این اساس، مجموعه‌های مسکونی محصور می‌توانند یک مانع در برابر تعامل باشند و ممکن است بر مشکلات ایجاد شبکه‌های اجتماعی که فرصتی برای فعالیت‌های اجتماعی و اقتصادی فراهم می‌آورند، بیفزایند.

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

Factors Affecting the Development of Sense of Community in Gated Communities: A Case Study of Gated Communities in Hamedan

نویسندگان [English]

  • Ramin Madani 1
  • Alireza Einifar 2
  • Bruce Judd 3
  • Mohammad Jalili 4
1 Assistant Professor of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Design, Art University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.
2 Professor of Architecture, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
3 Emeritus Professor of Architecture, City Futures Research Centre, Faculty of Built Environment, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
4 Ph.D. Candidate of Islamic Architecture, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Design, Art University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.
چکیده [English]

The emergence and expansion of planned residential developments with hard and controllable boundaries called gated communities and the social consequences of living in such communities have attracted the attention of researchers for decades. These communities are increasingly spreading in developing countries such as Iran. Despite the many studies conducted around the world on the social consequences of living in such developments, few empirical studies have examined such issues in Iran. Gated communities driven by the need for the creation of self-contained, planned, and private communities have become part of the Iranian urban housing development. The origin of gated compounds in Iran dates back to Sassanid cities which used walls and gates to control access and separate privileged social classes from the rest of the population. However, it seems that new gated communities first appeared during the early 1960s with the enforcement of the third and fourth Reconstruction Plans of the country. During this period, as housing proved to be a major issue, housing provision by the private sector burgeoned. The target profile was an emerging social class formed owing to the economic and political changes of the early 1960s. With the formation of the new social class and the entry of the private sector in housing market, gated communities became a marketing opportunity and a means of attracting particular markets for private housing developers.
In the housing literature, there exist many disagreements on how sense of community is perceived mainly as an indicator of the quality of life of gated communities’ residents. The literature shows that gated communities can both increase and decrease the sense of community. Considering the important functions of the sense of community in residential areas, this study aims to examine the factors affecting the development of the sense of community in gated communities. It mainly tries to answer the question: “How is sense of community perceived among the residents of gated communities of Hamedan and what are the factors that affect it the most?” In this survey, the data were collected from 360 residents above 20 years of age selected through cluster sampling in three gated communities in Hamedan. The scale used for measuring sense of community was the 12-item questionnaire developed by McMillan and Chavis. This questionnaire which enjoys high internal reliability with a Cronbach alpha of 0.80 was developed to measure the sense of community of the residents of the neighborhoods of the European and American cities. However, for the purposes of this research, the items of the scale were revised based on the social relationships and the neighborhood dynamics of the Iranian context. Due to the revision of item 11, the internal reliability was calculated again (Cronbach alpha=0.78).
The results showed that the variables related to local social ties including trust and social control, security, length of residence, use of public space and the existence of mixed uses had a meaningful relationship with sense of community. Therefore, it can be claimed that strong local social ties improve mutual trust and facilitate social control as well. In this way, sense of security increases, which leads to an increased number of residents willing to go to public places and enjoy their community; the fact that triggers social interactions, and consequently, sense of community. An increased sense of community in residential areas stimulates residents to stage the reconstruction and modernization of their city. Sense of community paves the way for participatory democracy, contributes to the implementation of various social and economic programs, and eventually, improves the quality of life.
In this research, the level of the perceived sense of community was not high. Hence, the results support those disagreeing perspectives in the literature that focus on the social costs of gated communities. Accordingly, gated communities can hamper social interaction and might add to the problems of creating social networks which provide an opportunity for social and economic activities – an issue related to city resilience. Due to the fact that gated communities did not appear overnight, they will not disappear in the short run and certainly will be the major landscape of cities for decades. Therefore, there is the need to look for a way to fully use the benefits of gated communities and minimize their potential harm. There is no single strategy for creating a strong sense of community. Instead, a set of interrelated guidelines and recommendations can be developed in areas such as population, transportation, land use, environmental quality, housing design and urban design which can help promote the sense of community among the residents of gated communities.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Gated Community
  • Strict Boundary
  • Sense of Community
  • Public Space
  • Hamedan
Altman, I., & Wohlwill, J.F. (2012). Human Behavior and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research. Springer Science & Business Media, 2.
Amirkafi, M., & Fathi, Sh. (2011). Investigating Factors Affecting Attachment to Neighborhood Case Study: Kerman City. Journal of Iranian Social Studies, 5(1), 1-26.
Atkinson, R., & Blandy, S. (Eds.). (2013). Gated Communities: International Perspectives. Routledge.
Austin, D.M., Furr, L.A., & Spine, M. (2002). The Effects of Neighborhood Conditions on Perceptions of Safety. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(5), 417-427.
Bell, P.A., Greene, T.C., Fisher, J.D., & Baum, A. (2005). Environmental Psychology. Psychology Press. London.
Blakely, E.J. (1999). The Gated Community Debate. Urban Land, 58, 50-55.
Blakely, E.J., & Snyder, M.G. (Eds.). (1997). Fortress America: Gated Communities in the United States. Brookings Institution Press.
Blandy, S. (2018). Gated Communities Revisited: Defended Homes Nested in Security Enclaves. People, Place & Policy Online, 11(3).
Brodsky, A.E., & Marx, C.M. (2001). Layers of Identity: Multiple Psychological Senses of Community within a Community Setting. Journal of Community Psychology, 29(2), 161-178.
Buckner, J.C. (1988). The Development of an Instrument to Measure Neighborhood Cohesion. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16(6), 771-791.
Byers, M. (2003). Waiting at the Gate: The New, Postmodern Promised Lands. Suburban Sprawl: Culture, Ecology and Politics Eds H Bartling, M Lindstrom (Rowman and Littlefield), Lanham, MD, 23-44.
Campbell, K. E., & Lee, B. A. (1992). Sources of Personal Neighbor Networks: Social Integration, Need, or Time?. Social Forces, 70(4), 1077-1100.
Chavis, D.M., & Pretty, G.M. (1999). Sense of Community: Advances in Measurement and Application. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 635-642.
Chavis, D.M., & Wandersman, A. (1990). Sense of Community in the Urban Environment: A Catalyst for Participation and Community Development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(1), 55-81.
Chipuer, H.M., & Pretty, G.M. (1999). A Review of the Sense of Community Index: Current Uses, Factor Structure, Reliability, and Further Development. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 643-658.
Cowan, R., & Hall, P.G. (2005). The Dictionary of Urbanism. Tisbury: Streetwise Press, 67.
Davidson, W.B., & Cotter, P.R. (1986). Measurement of Sense of Community within the Sphere of City1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16(7), 608-619.
Ellin, N. (1997). Architecture of Fear. Princeton Architectural Press.
Foucault, M. (2007). Security, Territory, Population. Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977-78. Springer.
Francis, J., Giles-Corti, B., Wood, L., & Knuiman, M. (2012). Creating Sense of Community: The Role of Public Space. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 32(4), 401-409.
Gehl, J. (2011). Life between Buildings: Using Public Space. Island Press.
Gehl, J. (2013). Cities for People. Island Press.
Gifford, R. (2007). Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practice. Colville, WA: Optimal Books.
Gifford, R. (Ed.). (2016). Research Methods for Environmental Psychology. John Wiley & Sons.
Glynn, T.J. (1986). Neighborhood and Sense of Community. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(4), 341-352.
Grant, J.L. (2007). Two SSides of a Coin? New Urbanism and Gated Communities. Housing Policy Debate, 18(3), 481-501.
Grant, J., & Mittelsteadt, L. (2004). Types of Gated Communities. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 31(6), 913-930.
Greenberg, S.W., & Rohe, W.M. (1984). Neighborhood Design and Crime: A Test of Two Perspectives. Journal of the American Planning Association, 50(1), 48-61.
Hill, J.L. (1996). Psychological Sense of Community: Suggestions for Future Research. Journal of Community Psychology, 24(4), 431-438.
Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of American Cities. New York: Routledge.
Judd, D. (1995). The Rise of New Walled Cities. In Spatial Practices. H. Ligget & D. C. Perry, eds. 144-165. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Landman, K. (2000). Gated Communities and Urban Sustainability: Taking a Closer Look at the Future. In 2nd Southern African Conference on Sustainable Development in the Built Environment Strategies for Sustainable Built Environment, Pretoria, South Africa, 23-25.
Landman, K. (2002a). Transforming Urban Spaces in South Africa: The Impact of Enclosed Neighbourhoods on the Urban Future. Transforming Rural and Urban Spaces in South Africa during the 1990s: Reform, Restitution, Restructuring, 205-225.
Landman, K. (2002b). Gated Communities in South Africa: Building Bridges or Barriers. In International Conference on Private Urban Governance, Mainz, Germany, 649.
Le Goix, R. (2005). Gated Communities: Sprawl and Social Segregation in Southern California. Housing Studies, 20(2), 323-343.
Leyden, K.M. (2003). Social Capital and the Built Environment: The Importance of Walkable Neighborhoods. American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), 1546-1551.
Low, S. (2003). Behind the Gates. New York and London: Routledge.
Maxwell, D.K. (2004). Gated Communities: Selling the Good Life. Dalhousie University.
McKenzie, E. (2003). Common Interest Housing in the Communities of Tomorrow. Housing policy Debate, 14(1-2), 203-234.
McMillan, D.W. (1996). Sense of Community. Journal of Community Psychology, 24(4), 315-325.
McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. (1986). Sense of Community: A Definition and Theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23.
Nasar, J.L., & Julian, D.A. (1995). The Psychological Sense of Community in the Neighborhood. Journal of the American Planning Association, 61(2), 178-184.
Obst, P., Smith, S.G., & Zinkiewicz, L. (2001). An Exploration of Sense of Community, Part 3: Dimensions and Predictor of Psychological Sense of Community in Geographical Communities. Journal of Community Psychology, 30(1), 119–133.
Obst, P.L., & White, K.M. (2004). Revisiting the Sense of Community Index: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Journal of Community Psychology, 32(6), 691-705.
Pedhazur, E.J. (1997). Multivariate Regression in Behavioral Research.
Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C., Wandersman, A., & Chavis, D.M. (1990). Participation and the Social and Physical Environment of Residential Blocks: Crime and Community Context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(1), 83-115.
Pooley, J.A., Cohen, L., & Pike, L.T. (2005). Can Sense of Community Inform Social Capital? The Social Science Journal, 42(1), 71-79.
Riger, S., & Lavrakas, P. J. (1981). Community Ties: Patterns of Attachment and Social Interaction in Urban Neighborhoods. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9(1), 55-66.
Rogers, G.O., & Sukolratanametee, S. (2009). Neighborhood Design and Sense of Community: Comparing SubUrban Neighborhoods in Houston Texas. Landscape and Urban Planning, 92(3), 325-334.
Roitman, S. (2010). Gated Communities: Definitions, Causes and Consequences. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Urban Design and Planning, 163(1), 31-38.
Skjaeveland, O., Gärling, T., & Maeland, J.G. (1996). A Multidimensional Measure of Neighboring. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24(3), 413-435.
Talen, E. (1999). Sense of Community and Neighbourhood Form: An Assessment of the Social Doctrine of New Urbanism. Urban Studies, 36(8), 1361-1379.
Wilson-Doenges, G. (2000). An Exploration of Sense of Community and Fear of Crime in Gated Communities. Environment and Behavior, 32(5), 597-611.
Zaireen, Z.A., Norhidayah, M.Y., Razali, M.N., Maslinda, A.L., Hussin, K., & Zakaria, S.R.A. (2015). The Typology of Gated Communities from Housing Developers’ Perspective. Advanced Science Letters, 21(5), 1247-1250.